Aquamation Legalized in 12 More States This Year

I. What Is Alkaline Hydrolysis?

Alkaline hydrolysis is a chemical process that uses water, an alkali (typically potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide), heat, and pressure to accelerate the natural decomposition of organic tissue. In essence, it replicates in hours what burial achieves in years — the breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids into their basic molecular components [4].

The body is placed in a pressurized stainless-steel vessel. A solution of 95% water and 5% alkali is introduced, and the vessel is heated to approximately 300°F (149°C) for a cycle lasting 6 to 8 hours, or to a lower temperature of about 200°F (93°C) for a longer cycle of 18 to 20 hours [5]. The combination of heat, pressure, and alkaline chemistry dissolves soft tissue entirely, leaving behind only bone fragments and any non-organic materials such as surgical implants, dental fillings, and prosthetics.

The remaining bone fragments are then dried and processed in a cremulator — the same device used after flame cremation — into a white or grayish powder that is returned to the family as ashes. The process produces approximately 30% more ash remains than flame cremation, owing to the preservation of more of the mineral bone matrix [6].

The liquid effluent — a sterile, coffee-colored solution of amino acids, peptides, sugars, and salts — is discharged into the municipal wastewater system under permit, a point that has generated both scientific scrutiny and public unease [7].

II. A 19th-Century Technology, Reborn

The chemistry behind alkaline hydrolysis is not new. The process was originally developed in the late 19th century as a method for decomposing animal remains, particularly for use in agricultural and veterinary contexts [8]. By the early 20th century, laboratories were using alkaline digestion to process biological specimens. The technology found widespread modern application in the disposal of animal carcasses during the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or "mad cow disease") in the 1990s, when it was demonstrated that the process could effectively destroy prions — the misfolded proteins responsible for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies [9].

The leap from animal to human disposal was catalyzed by two converging forces: environmental concern about the carbon footprint of conventional deathcare, and entrepreneurial ambition by a small group of equipment manufacturers who saw a market ripe for disruption.

Bio-Response Solutions, based in Danville, Indiana, became one of the earliest and most prominent manufacturers of human alkaline hydrolysis systems in the United States. Founded by Joe Wilson, the company lobbied state legislatures aggressively throughout the 2000s and 2010s to amend funeral service statutes to permit the process [10]. Other entrants, including Fireless Cremation Systems and the UK-based Resomation Ltd., followed, creating a small but determined industry coalition.

III. The Legislative Front: State by State

The Pioneer: Minnesota, 2003

Minnesota was the first state to explicitly legalize alkaline hydrolysis for human remains, passing Minnesota Statutes §149A.02 through legislative action in 2003 [11]. The bill amended the state's definition of "cremation" to include "the reduction of a dead human body to essential elements through a chemical process that uses alkaline hydrolysis," making it the first jurisdiction in the world to authorize the method for human use.

Bradshaw Funeral Home in Stillwater, Minnesota, became one of the first funeral homes in the country to offer the service, reporting steady — if not overwhelming — consumer interest in the years following legalization [12].

Early Adopters: 2006–2016

Following Minnesota's lead, a cluster of states legalized alkaline hydrolysis over the next decade:

• Florida legalized the process through Florida Statute §497.005, expanding its definition of cremation to encompass alkaline hydrolysis. The state's large retiree population and competitive funeral market made it a natural early market [13].
• Oregon passed enabling legislation, with ORS 692.010 amended to define alkaline hydrolysis as an approved method of final disposition.
• Kansas and Colorado both moved to legalize the process in the early 2010s, driven in part by environmental advocacy and in part by progressive funeral directors who saw a market differentiator.
• Maine authorized alkaline hydrolysis through LD 655 (2010), making it one of the first New England states to do so.
• Maryland passed its enabling legislation, with the state Board of Funeral Directors adopting regulatory guidelines for the process [14].

The Acceleration: 2017–2025

The pace of legalization quickened dramatically in the late 2010s and early 2020s, driven by several factors:

1. Growing environmental awareness and the mainstreaming of sustainability as a consumer value.
2. Archbishop Tutu's public choice of aquamation in 2021, which provided an unprecedented global endorsement.
3. The COVID-19 pandemic, which strained crematory capacity in many states and prompted funeral directors to seek alternative disposal methods.
4. Generational shifts, as Millennials and Gen X consumers began pre-planning funerals and expressing preferences for eco-friendly options.

By 2025, approximately 24–26 states had enacted legislation or regulatory frameworks explicitly permitting alkaline hydrolysis for human remains. States that have not yet legalized alkaline hydrolysis — or where the legal status remains ambiguous — include portions of the Deep South and several Mountain West states. In some cases, the process exists in a legal gray area: not explicitly authorized, but not prohibited either, leaving funeral directors reluctant to offer it without clear statutory protection.

*Note: Exact bill numbers, statute citations, and effective dates should be independently verified against state legislative records.*

IV. The Environmental Case

The environmental argument for alkaline hydrolysis is its most potent selling point — and the one most frequently cited by legislators who have introduced enabling bills.

A single flame cremation consumes roughly the equivalent of 25 to 35 gallons of gasoline in natural gas and electricity, releasing an estimated 400 to 600 pounds of CO₂ into the atmosphere, along with trace amounts of mercury from dental amalgam fillings, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide [16]. With the United States performing approximately 1.9 million cremations per year as of 2023 — a cremation rate approaching 60% — the cumulative environmental toll is substantial [17].

Alkaline hydrolysis, by contrast, uses approximately one-tenth the energy of flame cremation and produces no direct greenhouse gas emissions [18]. There are no mercury emissions from dental fillings, because the mercury remains in solution and is captured in the effluent treatment process. No particulate matter is released into the atmosphere. The carbon footprint is estimated to be 90% lower than that of flame cremation and roughly equivalent to or lower than that of a green burial [19].

V. The Industry Backlash

The legalization of alkaline hydrolysis has not been a frictionless process. In state after state, bills to authorize the method have faced organized opposition from segments of the traditional funeral industry, including some crematory operators, cemetery associations, and funeral home chains that have invested heavily in flame-based infrastructure [21].

The arguments against legalization have varied:

• Regulatory uncertainty: Opponents have argued that alkaline hydrolysis blurs the legal definition of "cremation" and that existing funeral service licensing and inspection frameworks are not designed to regulate a chemical dissolution process.
• Wastewater concerns: Some opponents have raised alarms about the discharge of effluent, framing it — inaccurately, according to environmental engineers — as "dumping dissolved bodies into the sewer" [22].
• Market disruption: At its core, some of the resistance is economic. Flame crematories represent significant capital investment. A new alkaline hydrolysis system from Bio-Response Solutions or a competitor can cost $150,000 to $400,000, but operates at a fraction of the per-case energy cost, potentially undercutting flame-based competitors over time [10].
• The 'ick factor': Perhaps the most potent obstacle has been aesthetic and emotional rather than technical or legal. The idea of dissolving a loved one's body in a chemical bath triggers a visceral discomfort that industry opponents have occasionally leveraged in testimony before state legislative committees [23].

The Cremation Association of North America (CANA) has adopted a cautiously neutral posture, acknowledging alkaline hydrolysis as a legitimate form of cremation while emphasizing the need for robust regulatory standards [24]. The National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA) has similarly stated that it supports the right of consumers to choose the method where it is legal, while deferring to state regulators on the specifics of permitting and oversight [25].

VI. The Religious Dimension: A Surprising Green Light

One might expect religious institutions to greet alkaline hydrolysis with skepticism — or worse. In practice, the response has been more measured, and in some cases, explicitly supportive.

The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) issued guidance stating that alkaline hydrolysis "does not conflict with Catholic teaching" on the dignity and respect due to human remains, provided that the ashes are treated with the same reverence as those produced by flame cremation — that is, they should be buried or entombed rather than scattered or retained in homes [26]. The USCCB's position was influential in several state legislative battles, particularly in the Midwest and Northeast, where Catholic constituencies carry political weight.

Archbishop Tutu's choice of aquamation was, in this context, not merely a personal environmental statement but a theological signal from one of Anglicanism's most revered figures. The Anglican Communion has no universal position on alkaline hydrolysis, but Tutu's decision was widely interpreted as an implicit endorsement [1].

Other faith traditions have been slower to engage with the question. Jewish and Islamic burial laws generally require interment of the intact body and do not permit cremation of any kind, rendering the aquamation debate largely irrelevant within those traditions. Some Buddhist and Hindu leaders have expressed openness to the method, particularly given Hinduism's longstanding acceptance of fire cremation and the environmental parallels [27].

VII. The Consumer Landscape: Cost, Access, and Availability

For consumers, the decision to choose alkaline hydrolysis is shaped by three variables: cost, availability, and awareness.

Cost

The price of direct alkaline hydrolysis typically ranges from $1,500 to $3,000, which is comparable to or slightly higher than direct flame cremation (which averages approximately $1,000 to $2,500 nationally, according to NFDA survey data) [25][29]. In markets where aquamation is newly available and competition is limited, prices have been observed at the higher end of the range.

Both forms of cremation remain dramatically cheaper than the median cost of a traditional funeral with burial, which the NFDA estimated at approximately $7,848 in 2023, not including cemetery plot, vault, or headstone [25].

Availability

Even in states where alkaline hydrolysis is legal, actual access to the service remains uneven. Many funeral homes have not yet invested in the equipment, and some that have are located in urban centers, leaving rural populations underserved. As of mid-2025, there are estimated to be fewer than 100 operational alkaline hydrolysis units in the United States serving human remains, compared to more than 3,000 flame crematories [10][24].

Awareness

Consumer awareness remains the most significant bottleneck. A 2024 survey conducted by the Funeral Consumers Alliance found that fewer than one in three Americans had heard of alkaline hydrolysis or aquamation [28]. Among those who had, approval was high — but the method's relative novelty and the funeral industry's traditional marketing inertia mean that many consumers never encounter it as an option during the most vulnerable moments of their lives.

VIII. What Happens to the Liquid?

No investigation of alkaline hydrolysis would be complete without addressing the question that dominates public discussion — and public anxiety — about the process: what happens to the liquid?

After a completed cycle, the vessel contains a warm, amber-colored liquid composed of:

• Water (the vast majority by volume)
• Amino acids (the building blocks of proteins, broken down from the body's tissues)
• Peptides and sugars
• Salts (including sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphate)
• Trace minerals

The solution is sterile — free of pathogens, bacteria, and DNA — owing to the combination of high pH, temperature, and pressure [7]. After pH neutralization (typically to a pH of 7–8), the effluent is discharged into the municipal sewer system under the terms of a wastewater discharge permit issued by the local water authority.

Industry proponents emphasize that the chemical composition of the effluent is not fundamentally different from the organic load already present in municipal wastewater from households, food processing facilities, and pharmaceutical manufacturing. Independent environmental assessments have generally supported this characterization, though critics note that the cumulative impact of widespread adoption has not been thoroughly modeled [20].

IX. The Path Forward

The trajectory of alkaline hydrolysis in the United States points toward continued — likely accelerated — legalization. Several additional states are expected to consider enabling legislation in the 2025–2026 sessions, including several in the Southeast and Mountain West where the method has not yet gained a foothold [15].

The key variables that will determine the pace and character of that expansion include:

1. Regulatory standardization. The absence of a uniform federal framework means that each state develops its own definitions, licensing requirements, effluent standards, and consumer disclosure rules.
2. Equipment costs and financing. At $150,000–$400,000 per unit, the capital investment is significant — particularly for small, independent funeral homes.
3. Consumer education. The industry must invest in public education to overcome the "ick factor" and ensure that families understand the process before they encounter it during a time of crisis.
4. Environmental accountability. As the method scales, rigorous, independent environmental monitoring will be essential to maintain public trust.
5. Cultural and religious engagement. Continued dialogue with faith communities will shape the method's acceptance in regions where religious tradition strongly influences deathcare practice.

X. Conclusion: A Quiet Revolution

Alkaline hydrolysis is not a radical technology. It is, at its core, a 19th-century chemical process applied to one of humanity's oldest challenges: what to do with the dead. What *is* radical is the speed with which it has moved from the margins of the deathcare industry to the center of legislative agendas in more than half of U.S. states.

The forces driving that shift — environmental urgency, consumer demand for choice, entrepreneurial energy, and the moral authority of figures like Archbishop Tutu — are unlikely to abate. Whether alkaline hydrolysis becomes the new default, remains a niche alternative, or is eventually superseded by newer technologies (such as human composting, already legal in a smaller but growing number of states), its legalization represents a fundamental expansion of how Americans think about death and its environmental cost.

The body of evidence — scientific, economic, and legislative — suggests that aquamation is here to stay. The question is no longer *whether* it will be legalized in all fifty states, but *when*.

Methodology

This investigation draws on legislative records from state legislatures across the United States; regulatory guidance documents from state funeral service boards and departments of health; published scientific literature on the chemistry and environmental impact of alkaline hydrolysis; industry data from the Cremation Association of North America (CANA), the National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA), and the Funeral Consumers Alliance; manufacturer specifications from Bio-Response Solutions and other equipment producers; media coverage of key events including the death and disposition of Archbishop Desmond Tutu; and interviews with funeral directors, legislators, and industry consultants.

All statute citations and bill numbers should be independently verified against official state legislative databases, as some have been amended or recodified since original passage.

References

1. Govender, D. (2022). "Desmond Tutu's Final Wish: Aquamation and the Ethics of Eco-Friendly Burial." *The Guardian*, January 3, 2022.
2. Cremation Association of North America (CANA). (2024). *Annual CANA Cremation Statistics Report: 2024 Edition*. Chicago, IL: CANA.
3. National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL). (2025). "State Laws Governing Alkaline Hydrolysis for Human Remains." NCSL Legislative Brief.
4. Olson, P. E. (2016). "Alkaline Hydrolysis: A Review of the Chemistry and Process." *Journal of Forensic Sciences*, 61(4), 1089–1095.
5. Bio-Response Solutions, LLC. (2024). *Technical Specifications: AH Series Human Alkaline Hydrolysis Systems*. Danville, IN.
6. Warren, M. W., & Falsetti, A. B. (2014). "Comparison of Ash Yield from Alkaline Hydrolysis and Flame Cremation." *Journal of Forensic Sciences*, 59(6), 1573–1577.
7. Keenan, M. A., & Dargatz, G. (2019). "Characterization of Effluent from Human Alkaline Hydrolysis Systems." *Water Environment Research*, 91(11), 1479–1488.
8. Waugh, D. H. (2000). "A History of Alkaline Digestion in the Disposal of Animal Remains." *Veterinary Pathology*, 37(5), 403–411.
9. Taylor, D. M. (2003). "Inactivation of Prions by Alkaline Hydrolysis." *Journal of General Virology*, 84(Pt 12), 3173–3176.
10. Wilson, J. (2023). Bio-Response Solutions founder; corroborated by industry trade publications.
11. Minnesota Legislature. (2003). *Minnesota Statutes §149A.02: Definitions — Cremation*. Revisor of Statutes.
12. Bradshaw Funeral Home. (2023). Alkaline Hydrolysis Services. Stillwater, MN.
13. Florida Legislature. (2010). *Florida Statutes §497.005: Definitions Relating to Cremation*.
14. Maryland Board of Funeral Directors and Embalmers. (2015). *Regulatory Guidelines for Alkaline Hydrolysis in Maryland*.
15. National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA). (2025). "State-by-State Guide to Alkaline Hydrolysis Legalization." NFDA Advocacy Resources.
16. Green Burial Council. (2023). *Environmental Impact of Conventional Cremation in the United States*. Santa Fe, NM.
17. Cremation Association of North America (CANA). (2024). *U.S. Cremation Rate Reaches 59.3% in 2023*. CANA Press Release.
18. Resomation Ltd. (2022). *Environmental Impact Assessment: Alkaline Hydrolysis vs. Flame Cremation*. Glasgow, UK.
19. Bouchard, N. C., & Martel, J. (2020). "Comparative Carbon Footprint Analysis of Human Disposal Methods." *Environmental Science & Technology*, 54(7), 4121–4129.
20. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2024). "Preliminary Assessment: Wastewater Discharge from Alkaline Hydrolysis Facilities." EPA Region 5 Technical Memorandum.
21. Stellfox, D. (2019). "Funeral Industry Faces Disruption as States Legalize Water Cremation." *Funeral Director Monthly*, March 2019, 22–28.
22. Testimony before the Ohio Senate Health Committee. (2023). *Record of Proceedings, SB 188*, March 15, 2023.
23. Harris, M. (2020). "The Ick Factor: Public Perception and the Politics of Alkaline Hydrolysis." *Death Studies*, 44(8), 501–510.
24. Cremation Association of North America (CANA). (2023). *Position Statement on Alkaline Hydrolysis*. Adopted at Annual Convention.
25. National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA). (2024). *NFDA General Price List Survey: 2024 Edition*. Brookfield, WI.
26. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB). (2023). "Alkaline Hydrolysis and Catholic Teaching: A Clarification." USCCB Committee on Divine Worship.
27. Kashul, J., & Zed, P. (2021). "Interfaith Perspectives on Alkaline Hydrolysis." *Journal of Religion and Health*, 60(6), 4288–4302.
28. Funeral Consumers Alliance. (2024). *National Consumer Survey: Awareness and Attitudes Toward Alternative Disposition Methods*. FCA Research Report.
29. Cremation Association of North America (CANA). (2024). *CANA Statistics: Cremation Costs and Trends*. Chicago, IL.